INTRODUCTION. Some of the Marine Corps’ most difficult assignments were not only excessively costly, but also had questionable strategic value. The Marine Generals’ willingness to take on almost any assignment therefore came at a stiff price. They acceded for having little say in the Pacific War strategy, and because they were ready to demonstrate their added value to the military establishment. If the Marines had balked at any of their missions, it would have upset the Navy’s confidence in the Marine Corps, and grant the Army a bigger role in the war. As Marines, they did not question orders. They fought with professionalism, persistence, and competence against the strongest Japanese defenses in the Pacific.
Although the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Commanders decided which Japanese island to attack, it was the Marine Combat Generals who determined the proper tactics, timing, weaponry, planning, organization, alternatives, and training for the actual ground operation. They did amphibious operations that were extraordinarily tough to organize with tactical precision.
The Marine generals selected their officers and staff. The Marine Corps were directly responsible for the performance of their division’s missions. However great their contribution, they were still criticized mainly for their large casualties.
Although Marine Corps battle Commanders took some of most horrendous and complicated assignments, they emerged victorious in all of their operations during the U.S. counter-offensive across the Pacific, except in the Philippines mainly because the focus was on the fight in Europe to block Hitler’s advances. And even after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, and hours later, the Philippines, the grand strategy was still to deploy resources against Germany, and remain on the defensive in the Pacific against Japan.
The Marine Corps’ success is a credit not only to their doctrine and culture, but also to the USMC Commandants, who relied on their personal knowledge of the officer corps to appoint the right people for the right posts. These Marine combat generals deserve more attention from historians than they had been given for their roles in garnering victory over Japan. The few who failed were due to the intricate job of planning and executing the complex amphibious assaults.
The names of these WWII Marine Corps Combat Generals –men who led tens of thousands of marines through some of the Pacific War’s most ferocious battles have been all but forgotten.
WAGING WAR IN THE MOST REMOTE PLACES ON EARTH
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7-December-1941 on Sunday at 8:00 in the morning. By March 1942, the Combined Chiefs of Staff split the Pacific into two groups. The Army led the Southwest Pacific Area under Gen. Douglas MacArthur (Australia, New Guinea, Dutch East Indies, and Philippines). The Navy-centric Pacific Ocean Area under Admiral Chester Nimitz was subdivided into the North Pacific Area; Central Pacific Area; and South Pacific Area. The arrangement allowed Army and Navy forces to focus on defeating Japan. The Marine Corps concentrated almost exclusively on invading Japan’s islands via amphibious operations that Marines were trained for.
Japan made it impossible for the U.S. Navy to steam across the Pacific to rescue the Philippines and defeat Japan as envisioned in War Plan Orange by crippling the U.S. Fleet at Pearl Harbor. Japan’s offensive stunned everyone with their ferocity and rage. Japan struck several Allied positions in the region that by end-May 1942, Japan had taken the Philippines, Guam, Wake, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Burma, and Dutch East Indies. Japan captured 85,000 British troops in Singapore, and 76,000 Americans and Filipinos in Bataan, Philippines. The Japanese Fleet had sunk dozens of Allied warships. In turn, by the U.S. inevitably provoking the Japanese into a brutal war of attrition, Japan was compelled to fight a war it could not afford economically and militarily.
The Battle of Guadalcanal during August 1942–February 1943 forged the 1st Marine Division into a veteran outfit for a cadre of Generals who participated in the “Guadalcanal Campaign” and showed how the Marines had dominated amphibious operations in the Pacific War. In the 186-day battle, 7,000 Marines were killed, and 20,000 wounded; and 24,000 Japanese killed. The Battle of Tarawa took place in November 1943. Marine commanders learned important lessons that would be applied to future battles, particularly the need for better inspection, precise and sustained pre-landing bombardment, and more amphibious landing vehicles. Better waterproofed radios would be developed as a result of Marines wading in waist-high waters to reach the beaches through enemy fire by Japanese snipers from the wrecked and abandoned boats in the lagoon. In the 4-day battle, over 1,000 Marines were killed and over 2,000 wounded; and 6,400 Japanese killed. The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February-March 1945. In the 36-day battle, 7,000 Marines were killed, and 20,000 wounded; 21,000 Japanese killed, and 216 captured. The biggest lesson learned from Iwo Jima is that the price of freedom is high. The Battles of Guam took place in 1941 (Axis victory) and 1944 (Allied victory). In total, 24,511 Marines were killed, and 68,207 wounded; and over 18,000 Japanese killed. The Battle of Saipan took place in June-July in 1944. In the 24-day battle. 3,426 Marines went missing, 10,364 wounded, 4,500 fell ill; 24,000 Japanese killed, and 5,000 suicides. The Battle of Kwajalein and Roi-Namur took place in January-February 1944. In the 4-day battle: on Roi-Namur, less than 200 Marines were killed, and 500 wounded; over 3,500 Japanese killed, and 200 captured; on Kwajalein, 5,000 Japanese soldiers were killed and a handful were captured; the Army’s 7th Infantry counted 177 soldiers killed and 1,000 wounded. The Battle of Peleliu took place in September-November 1944. In the 71-day battle, 1,460 Marines were killed; 13,600 Japanese were killed, and 400 captured. The Battle of Okinawa took place in April-June 1945. In the 82-day battle, the largest death casualties of 100,000 Japanese; 38,000 Allies; 14,200 Marines; and 10,000 Japanese captured. U.S. Army troops landed at Hagushi on the west coast of Okinawa. 50,000 men of the 10th Army established a beachhead about 5 miles long, for which naval minesweepers pre-cleared the landing. It was the largest amphibious landing in WWII Pacific.
AN ANOMALOUS ORGANIZATION IN SEARCH OF A MISSION
Lt Colonel Earl “Pete” H. Ellis was the Marine Intelligence Officer who zeroed in on Japan as the most likely future adversary of the U.S. in War Plan Orange, the Navy’s contingency plan for fighting Japan, which called for the U.S. Fleet to steam across the Pacific to rescue the American-held Philippines and defeat its Japanese counterpart in a climactic naval battle. Lt Colonel Ellis recognized that doing so would require someone to seize and hold island bases in the Central Pacific to aid in the Navy’s offensive. In the 1921 report “Advanced Base Force Operations in Micronesia,” It was Lt. Col. Ellis who advocated that the Marine Corps fill this difficult role. The 13th Marine Corps Commandant, Gen. John Lejeune, endorsed the Ellis’ report, thus assigning the USMC its mission: Amphibious Operations.
Gen. Thomas Holcomb was the 17th Commandant of the Marine Corps when the U.S. entered WWII in December 1941. He graduated from the Naval War College, Rhode Island. His long-standing friendship with President Franklin Roosevelt and deep commitment to the Marine’s amphibious doctrine secured his post. Holcomb had good judgment, common sense, inspired confidence in others, but was cold-blooded. He was plain spoken and referred to Washington DC as a “snake pit of intrigue.” He was dedicated, self-disciplined, and self-reliant. Having a 20th century mind, Holcomb rarely removed officers from their posts for cause. His policy was to rotate Marine officers who had been overseas for a year or more to come home and teach the new recruits. He was the right man for the job at the right time. Holcomb announced that women were eligible to serve in the Marine Corps in 13-February-1943, a date celebrated as the anniversary of women in the Marine Corps. There were 17,000 U.S. Marines in 1936, and by the time Holcomb retired in 1944, that number had risen to 300,000. Gen. Holcomb was the first Marine Commandant promoted to full General after retirement.
CLOSING IN ON JAPAN
Assailing the Japanese islands required intricate coordination among the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. In March 1945, Japan’s cities and factories were bombed by the Army Air Forces one by one, blocking import of food and materiel. Tired and disinclined to face off with the Japanese, the Marines blasted them out of their caves and tunnels with flame-throwers and bulldozers. The naval Battle of Midway fought in 3–7 June, 1942 in the central Pacific Ocean turned the tide of the war in favor of the Allies. In the naval Battle of Leyte Gulf fought in October 1944, U.S. carrier aircrafts destroyed 1,046 Japanese planes and warships totaling more than 300,000 tons, effectively eliminating the Japanese surface fleet. Japan conceded defeat but would only submit if their Emperor is guaranteed preservation but the Allies demanded unconditional surrender. In the 1943 campaigns and the first half of 1944, the Allies captured Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, and Papuan Peninsula of New Guinea. Iwo Jima and Okinawa were the goriest. This left Japan holding the islands of the Philippines, Caroline, Palau, and Marianas. After the atomic bombing on Hiroshima on 6-August and Nagasaki on 9-August-1945 by the U.S. 509th Army Air force, the Marine Corps changed mission to occupying Japan and eastern China. That day, 70,000 Japanese died in Hiroshima; and 40,000 in Nagasaki.
THE U.S. MARINE CORPS COMBAT GENERALS
Marine Combat Generals did not become known like their Army and Navy counterparts. Ironically, the Marine Corps gained considerable renown in battle but their Marine Combat Generals were virtually and historically anonymous. All 16 Marine Combat Generals received multi military honors, stars, and awards for participation and heroism in leading a battle.
16 Generals led U.S. Marine Corps Divisions overseas for a prolonged period. But 3 of the 16 Marine Division Commanders never got an opportunity to command in battle: Generals Charles Barrett, John Marston, and Clayton Vogel. They did not fail in battle. They failed in pre-battle planning, training, coordinating, or for not having an “iron soul” which would put the lives of Marines in jeopardy. A hardness in character is deemed necessary to have the ability to do whatever it takes to win. Physical and mental health status must also be prime to be a good Commanding General.
9 of the 16 Marine Division Commanders were assigned to the Central Pacific: Generals Cates, Geiger, Rupertus, Schmidt, Shepherd, Holland Smith, Julian Smith, Turnage, and Watson. Of the 9 Generals, 2 fought but did not excel in battle: Generals Rupertus and Julian Smith, and were reassigned.
The attrition ended with 7 Marine battle Division Commanders, of which 6 were by combat-hardened veteran Generals personally known to the 18th Marine Corps Commandant Alexander Vandegrift, and remained division commanders until the end of the Pacific War. One other division was led by a rookie, Keller Rockey, who was anticipated to be the least effective Battle Commander, but proved otherwise.
Lt Gen. Alexander “Vandy” Vandegrift served in WWI and WWII. He attended the University of Virginia. In 1942, he was promoted to Maj. Gen. and commanded the 1st Marine Division. Vandegrift was the first Marine Officer on active duty to attain a four-star rank for outstanding service. Vandergrift was responsible for picking the Marine Division commanders and assistant commanders, as well as the leaders of the Amphibious Corps. He knew each one personally in great detail, and based on shared experiences while fulfilling pre-war missions as most officers spent time onboard warships commanding Marine detachments. The experiences introduced the Marines to the Navy’s way of doing things as well as to the naval officers with whom they would later work with. He fought in the Solomon Islands, Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Gavutu in 1942. Vandegrift became the hero of the Battle of Guadalcanal. At the end of the Battle of Edson’s Ridge of 12-14 September, 1942, Vandegrift used the rotation period to bring the Marines, Col. Capers James and Col. LeRoy Hunt (a good friend of Vandegrift), home to train and organize new units. The latter never forgave Vandegrift for derailing his career as Commander of 5th Marine Regiment. Vandegrift used the rotation rationale to replace unsatisfactory performers. Vandegrift became Commanding General of 1st Marine Amphibious Corps in July 1943. His selection of Marines created a “Guadalcanal Clique” that dominated the Corps even postwar. From 1944-46, Vandegrift became the 18th Commandant of the Marine Corps. In 1982, the frigate USS Vandegrift was named in his honor.
Lt. Gen. Julian C. Smith served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from the University of Delaware in 1885. In June 1938, he was Commander of 5th Marines, 1st Marine Brigade at Quantico, Virginia where he remained until his promotion to Brig. General. Julian Smith was ordered to London, where he served with the Naval Attaché, American Embassy, as a naval observer. Smith returned to the U.S. in August 1941, and reported to Quantico. Upon appointment to Maj. Gen. in October 1942, he became Commanding Officer, Fleet Marine Force Training Schools at New River, North Carolina. In May 1943, Lt. Gen. Julian Smith became Commander of 2nd Marine Division to lead the division in the assault on Tarawa. The basic idea was for the Army to take Makin while the Marines stormed Tarawa. In November 1943, American warships had arrived near Tarawa. The Marines moved inland on Betio Island, blasting surviving enemy emplacements with grenades, demolition packs and flame-throwers. 76 hours after the invasion, Betio was finally declared secure. Tarawa served as a very costly classroom experiment that taught Naval and Marine officers what amphibious practices would work, or not. The intellectual Julian Smith lost his footing when communications were cut during the raid. He was reassigned and became Commanding General, Expeditionary Troops, 3rd Fleet in April 1944. By December 1944, he took command of the Department of the Pacific, with headquarters in San Francisco, California. He earned a Doctor of Laws from University of Berkeley in 1945. Lt. Gen. Julian Smith became Commanding General, Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island until his retirement in 1946. The Julian C. Smith Hall at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune is named after him.
Gen. Allen “Hal” Turnage served in WWI and WWII. He attended the University of North Carolina. In April 1941, He was Director of the Division of Plans and Policies at Headquarters Marine Corps when WWII broke out. In June 1942, he took command of the Base and its Training Center which included organization and training of two Regimental Combat Teams for the 3rd Marine Division, at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. In September 1943, he became Commander of 3rd Marine Division. He led the Division in the landing on Bougainville in 1943, and in the recapture of Guam in 1944, and was awarded the Navy Cross and Distinguished Service Medal. Turnage became Director of Personnel at Headquarters Marine Corps in September 1944, and Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. Turnage had a serene demeanor even under fire and was well-liked by the Marine Corps. However, he lacked the experience of ferocious combat battles that the other Marine battle commanders faced. In May 1946, the University of North Carolina, awarded him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. His final assignment was as Commanding General, Pacific Fleet Marine Force. Gen. Turnage retired in January 1948 with 4-stars for heroism in combat.
Gen. Roy “Jiggs” Geiger served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from Stetson University, College of Law. In September 1942, Geiger took command of Cactus Air Force at Henderson Field, Guadalcanal. In November 1943, he returned to the field as Commanding General of I Amphibious Corps and led the Corps in November-December 1943 in clearing Bougainville with the help of Allen Turnage’s 3rd Marine Division, for the arrival of the Army 37th Division. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. He became Commanding General of III Amphibious Corps in April 1944, accomplishing the invasion and recapture of Guam in July-August 1944, and the assault and capture of Palau Islands in September 1944. Geiger received 2 gold stars for the victories in Guam and Palau. Geiger led the III Amphibious Corps into action for the 4th time as part of the 10th Army in the capture of Okinawa in 1945. Geiger was the best combat Marine General in WWII Pacific, spoke direct to the point with an utmost dislike for small talk. He had a first-rate intellect that he quickly grasped issues and flaws in arguments. Aside from a law degree, Geiger had years of aviation experience. He was hard-driving, aggressive, confident, intimidating, and unforgiving of errors yet his crew looked up to him. A newly arrived pilot reported that Japanese naval guns rendered Henderson Field inoperative. Geiger walked down to the airstrip to commandeer a dive bomber, took off, dodging shells, flew north, bombed a Japanese battery and returned without a scratch. This most proficient and successful Marine Corps Commander was neither infantryman nor artilleryman but an airman. In 1945, he became Commanding General, Pacific Fleet Marine Force. Geiger was promoted to 4-stars posthumously by the 1947 80th Congress.
Lt. Gen. Pedro A. del Valle served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland in 1915. In 1931, del Valle was with the “Landing Operations Text Board” in Quantico, the first step the Marines took to develop a doctrine for amphibious assault. In 1932, his essay titled “Ship-to-Shore in Amphibious Operations,” stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault, and execution of an opposed landing. In March 1941, del Valle became Commander of 11th Marine Artillery Regiment and participated in the Battle of Guadalcanal providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division. In the Battle of Tenaru in Guadalcanal in August 1942, del Valle’s artillery units killed all assaulting Japanese soldiers even before they reached the Marines. It stunned the Japanese commander, Col. Ichiki Kiyonao, and drove him to commit seppuku. In October 1942, he became Brig. Gen. and head of 11th Marine Regiment. He fought in the Battle of Guam in 1944. As Commanding General of 3rd Corps Artillery, III Amphibious Corps, he was awarded a Gold Star. The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that not one could be singled out for commendation. Del Valle gave each man a letter of commendation that went on record. In October 1944, del Valle became Commander of 1st Marine Division. In May 1945, del Valle fought in the Battle of Okinawa. Del Valle ordered Company A, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines to capture the Shuri Castle, a medieval fortress of the Ryukyuan kings. This was a moral blow to the Japanese. He was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for leadership. Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle became Inspector General and Director of Personnel until he retired in January 1948.
Maj. Gen. Graves “Robert” Erskine served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from Louisiana State University. Erskine served as Chief of Staff, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet. In September 1942, he joined the Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet, in San Diego, California as Chief of Staff and performed duty in Alaska in July-August 1943 during the planning and training phase of the assault on Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands. Maj. Gen. Erskine then became Chief of Staff of V Amphibious Corps for the Pacific. He was promoted to Brig. Gen. in November 1943, and became Deputy Commanding General, V Amphibious Corps. For exceptionally meritorious service during the invasion of the Gilbert Islands in 1943, and the assault and capture of Kwajalein, Saipan, and Tinian in 1944, Erskine received two awards of the Legion of Merit, both with combat valor. He performed duties for the “Marianas Campaign” as Chief of Staff of East Marine Force, Pacific. He was Commander of 3rd Marine Division in the Battle of Iwo Jima in February 1945 where his unit was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for extraordinary heroism, and he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal. In July 1947, Erskine became Commander of 1st Marine Division, as well as Commanding General of Camp Pendleton. In May 1949, he became Deputy Commander, Pacific Fleet Marine Force. In July 1951, as Lt. Gen., Erskine became Commanding General, Atlantic Fleet Marine Force. Upon retirement, Erskine was advanced to 4-star rank in July 1953, with special commendation for heroism in combat. Holland Smith saw Erskine as a brilliant officer, and valued his efficiency. Erskine held a career at the Pentagon from 1953-1961 as Assistant to the Secretary of Defense, specializing in special intelligence operations.
Maj. Gen. Lemuel “Lem” C. Shepherd, Jr. served in WWI, WWII, and the Korean War. He graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1896.. Commandant Holcomb gave the 9th Marine Division to Shepherd which he took to Guadalcanal as part of the 3rd Marine Division. Shepherd took command of the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, formed from experienced units – 4th Marines and 22nd Marines – that had fought on Guadalcanal in 1942-43; Eniwetok and Guam and other amphibious operations in 1944. The brigade had good men, but their loyalty remained with their original regiments. Shepherd worked double time, persuading them to cooperate and give their allegiance to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade. He trained the brigade well, emphasizing tank-infantry tactics to overcome the Japanese machine gun emplacements. In the summer of 1944, his brigade was ready. To bring the brigade to division level, Vandegrift built the 15th Artillery Regiment for the 29th Regiment, and combined them forming the 6th Marine Division. In April 1945, Shepherd became Commander of 6th Marine Division called the “Striking Sixth,” on Okinawa. It entered Naha on the night of 23-May-1945, sustaining 1,622 killed and 6,689 wounded. Okinawan deaths ran as high as 150,000. Shepherd was intelligent, competitive, and ambitious, but also had a fatalistic religious streak, stating that only God could help a Marine. Lt. Gen. Simon Buckner, Jr. of the 10th Army who rejected an amphibious assault landing behind Shuri by the 2nd Marine Division, was questioned after the war as it may have led to the high death rate in Okinawa. Shepherd became the 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps. He was the first Commandant to become a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which gave parity to USMC. He retired in January 1956.
Lt. Gen. Keller E. Rockey fought in WWI and WWII. He graduated from Gettysburg College in 1913. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Rockey was Chief of Staff for the 2nd Marine Division. He was then appointed as Head of the Plans and Policies Division, and later as Assistant Commandant. Keller Rockey became a highly decorated Marine General as the Commander of 5th Marine Division in the Battle of Iwo Jima in 1945, and Commanding General of 3rd Amphibious Corps during the occupation of North China following the Pacific War. Despite being the only rookie among veteran Marine Division Commanders, Rockey’s 5th Marine Division captured more territory, with less personnel evacuated for illness or combat fatigue, and faced the enemy longer than the other Marine divisions. His subordinates appreciated his honesty and fairness. Commanders noted Rockey supported his men in their efforts, protected them from undue pressure from higher-ups, and did not scapegoat. But his weakness was being insufficiently direct and forceful. In 1946, he became Commanding General, Department of the Pacific; and the Atlantic Fleet Force in 1947. For outstanding services with the 3rd Amphibious Corps, Rockey was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal (Army), and for exceptionally meritorious service with the 5th Marine Division, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal (Navy).
Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus served in WWI and WWII. His excellent marksmanship led to his recruitment by in November 1913, and was appointed 2nd Lt. in the Marine Corps. In the summer of 1915, 2nd Lt. Rupertus was a member of the Marine Corps Rifle Team. The Inspector of Target Practice was Captain Thomas Holcomb, who would later become his Commandant. Rupertus won a Distinguished Marksman’s badge in mid-1915. He attended Marine Corps Officers School, graduating first in his class of 1915. Rupertus was a staunch advocate of expert marksmanship and penned the Rifleman’s Creed as doctrine for the Marines right after the Pearl Harbor attack. He graduated with distinction from the Command and General Staff College in 1926. In 1937, Rupertus was the Battalion Commander of 4th Marines Regiment when Japan attacked Shanghai in the 2nd Sino-Japanese War. In WWII, he was Assistant Division Commander under his friend, Vandegrift, who commanded the 1st Marine Division. He commanded the Landing Task Force Organization which attacked successfully the islands of Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo in Guadalcanal. Rupertus assumed command of the 1st Marine Division, upon detachment of Vandegrift in 1943, for which he participated in Cape Gloucester in 1943 and Peleliu campaigns in 1944, but did not perform as well in Peleliu because he lacked tactical competency. Rupertus was ferociously loyal to the Marine Corps, short-tempered, and convinced of the certitude of USMC ideas. These very same flaws, however, were what the Marine Corps valued to defend the Marine’s stance against the Army. In November 1944, he became Commandant of the Marine Corps Schools at Quantico, Virginia. Capt. Patrick H. Rupertus, USMC is his son.
Gen. Clifton “Lucky” B. Cates served in WWI, WWII, and the Korean War. He graduated from the Missouri Military Academy in 1910, and held a Doctor of Law from the University of Tennessee College of Law in 1916. In August 1937, Cates returned to Shanghai as Battalion Commander with the 6th Marine Regiment, later transferring to 4th Marine Regiment. He was awarded the Navy Cross. While attending the U.S. Army War College in April 1940, he was promoted to Colonel and later reported as the Director of The Basic School at Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pennsylvania. In May 1942, he became Commander of 1st Marine Division, leading the troops at Guadalcanal. In September, he was promoted to Brigadier General. He then became Commandant of the Marine Corps School at Quantico, Virginia. In February 1944, he was promoted to Major General. That summer, he became Commander of 4th Marine Division, participating in the Battles of the Mariana and Tinian Islands. In February-March 1945, he led the 4th Marine Division in the Battle of Iwo Jima. In December 1945, Cates briefly served as President of the Marine Corps Equipment Board at Quantico, Virginia, then was assigned as Commanding General, Marine Barracks, Quantico. In January 1948, he was promoted to General and became the 19th Commandant of the Marine Corps leading the Marines during the Korean War together with Gen. Shepherd. In 1952, he became Commandant, Marine Corps Schools, Quantico. Cates was promoted to General upon his retirement in June 1954.
Maj. Gen. John Marston VI served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania, as his great grandfather RADM John Marston III had. In September 1941, Army reinforcements arrived, and Its Commander, Charles Hartwell Bonesteel, Jr., was senior to Marston. Despite the objections of Marine Commandant Thomas Holcomb, Marston’s unit was detached for service with the Army by order of the President, the only time in WWII that a Marine Corps unit was detached from the Navy to the Army. On March 8, Marston relocated his command post from shore to the USS McCawley, restoring the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to Navy jurisdiction. The unit reached New York on March 25, where it was immediately disbanded. Its component units were transferred to the 2nd Marine Division, and Marston was promoted to Maj. Gen. in March-1942. In April 1942, Marston was appointed Commander of 2nd Marine Division, which arrived in Samoa in September 1942. In March 1943, the 2nd Marine Division participated in Guadalcanal, but Marston was ordered to be in New Zealand because the “Guadalcanal Campaign” was to be an Army operation. Since Marston outranked the Commander of Army XIV Corps, Marston had to relinquish his command to his Assistant Division Commander, Brig. Gen. Alphonse DeCarre. Marston offered to waive his seniority but Admiral Halsey refused. The joint Army and Marine operation did not gel well and the officers criticized DeCarre for ineptitude. They did not fight as an integrated force. In April 1943, Marston became Commander of Marine Activities in San Diego at Camp Elliott. In August 1943, he became Commanding General, Department of the Pacific. Marston served as Commanding General of Camp Lejeune, until he retired in 1946. His son, Lt. Col. John Marston VII, 6th Marine Division, received a Silver Star.
Lt. Gen. Thomas “Terrible Tommy” Watson served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from the Army War College in 1938. He was commissioned a 2nd Lt. of the Marine Corps in 1916. During 1930-34, he was Naval Attaché to the Dominican Republic. Watson joined the 3rd Marine Brigade as Chief of Staff of Gen. Barrett, and sailed for Samoa in April 1942, where he took command of the brigade in August 1942. In November 1943, he became Commanding General of Tactical Group 1, which included the 22nd Marine Regiment, Army 27th Division, V amphibious Group, and led this joint organization in the assault and capture of Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands on February 1944. Watson was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. He then became Commander of 2nd Marine Division, replacing Julian Smith, in April 1944, and led in active operations against enemy forces in the Battles of Saipan and Tinian in the Marianas. His aggressiveness, competence, imagination, knowledge, and loyalty were seen by Vandegrift. He was awarded a Gold Star. But “Terrible Tommy” had a stormy personality, having no tolerance for stupidity, laziness, incompetence, or failure in leadership. His temper would turn fiery and furious. During April 1-13, 1945, he led the division as part of Task Group 51.2 in diversionary activities off the coast of Okinawa and as floating reserve for the 10th Army. From August 1945 to June 1946, he became Director of Personnel. He assumed Command of 2nd Marine Division in Camp Lejeune. His last command from 1948–1950 was as Commanding General, Pacific Fleet Marine Force.
Gen. Holland “Howlin’ Mad” Smith graduated with a BS degree from Auburn University in 1901; and a Bachelor of Laws from University of Alabama in 1903. He became Commanding General of V Amphibious Corps in Saipan, but was later moved out of the Pacific. Although an expert logistician, organizer, and trainer, Gen. H.M. Smith oversaw but did not command the major WWII battles that he managed, except Kwajalein. Nevertheless, Erskine appreciated Holland Smith’s independence and perceptiveness. In June 1941, he helped create the Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet, which provided initial training for the 1st Marines and the 9th Army Division on amphibious warfare. In October 1941, he was promoted to Maj. Gen. and commanded the Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet. In August 1942, commanded the Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet, and completed the amphibious indoctrination of 2nd Marine and 3rd Marine Divisions, and the 7th Army Division involved in the Aleutians Islands operation. The Amphibious Corps was designated V Amphibious Corps a year later and relocated to Pearl Harbor. Holland Smith helped plan the invasion of Tarawa in November 1943. In February 1944, he was promoted to Lt. Gen. and participated in the invasion of Kwajalein. For the V Amphibious Corps, Holland Smith prepared for the invasion of Saipan in June 1944, Guam in July 1944, and Tinian in August 1944. Holland Smith was designated Commanding General, Pacific Fleet Marine Force, and later commanded Task Force 56 to plan the invasion of Iwo Jima in February 1945. In July, he led the Marine Training and Replacement Command at Camp Pendleton. He was promoted to General and retired in May 1946. The USMC Base Camp H.M. Smith, HQ of Marine Corps Pacific on Oahu, Hawaii is named in his honor.
Gen. Harry “Dutchman” Schmidt served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from the Command and General Staff School in 1932. In January 1942, he became Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. In 1944, a joint Marine and Army troop launched an amphibious assault on Kwajalein where the Japan stationed its outermost defensive perimeter. The U.S. forces for the landings comprised RADM Turner’s 5th Fleet Amphibious Force, and Gen. Holland Smith’s V Amphibious Corps, comprising the 4th Marine Division commanded by Maj. Gen. Harry Schmidt, Army’s 7th Infantry Division, 22nd Marines, Army’s 106th and 111th Infantry regiments. The 4th Marine Division and 7th Infantry Division were assigned to do landings at Roi-Namur, while 2nd Battalion, 106th Inf was assigned to the capture of Majuro Atoll. The rest of the 106th Inf and 22nd Marine Regiment were on reserve for the assault on Eniwetok. The 4th Marine Division took Roi-Namur in March 1944 in half the time the Army took Majuro Atoll. This was the first Marine Corps unit to formally employ fire team tactics in combat. Schmidt led the 4th Marine Division in the Battle of Saipan. In February 1945, 70,000 Marine Corps landed on Iwo Jima. The island was laden with pillboxes, gun emplacements, tunnels, and machine-gun nests, ready to annihilate the approaching Marines. The Battle of Iwo Jima encompassed everything the Marine Corps represents: courage, sacrifice, persistence, camaraderie, discipline, and honor. The Marine Commander who led and won the Battle of Iwo Jima is Gen. Harry Schmidt, Commanding General, Pacific Fleet Marine Force. In February 1945, a platoon-sized patrol began climbing Suribachi wary of snipers. Marines of 5th Marine Division planted a much larger American flag than the previous team did. The Japanese fired on the men at the summit. Schmidt had a steady hand, determination, and fortitude that guided his Marines to overcome their enemy. Schmidt became Commanding General of V Amphibious Corps in July 1944.
Maj. Gen. Clayton “Barney” Vogel served in WWI and WWII. He graduated from Rutgers University in 1904, and took Law at Georgetown University. In 1941, Vogel led the 2nd Marine Division. He became Commanding General, Pacific Amphibious Force, and led the I Amphibious Corps. He was promoted to Maj. Gen. to lead the preparation of Marines for amphibious operations. The unit was designated I Marine Amphibious Corps (1MAC). In May 1942. Vogel became Commander of 2nd Joint Training Force, comprising 2nd Marine Division and 3rd Army Division. In February 1942, Vogel tested the Navajo Code Talkers by writing combat messages. The Navajo transmitted the messages almost verbatim. In March 1942, Vogel wrote to Commandant Thomas Holcomb recommending the Navajo Code Talkers because Nazi Germans had not been able to infiltrate the Navajo tribe. In 1943, Admiral Halsey ordered Vogel to do a “New Georgia Campaign” study. Vogel’s calculation of ground forces necessary to capture New Georgia, with landing forces from the South Pacific Army, were on the high side. Vogel did not meet the expectations of Admiral Halsey, who considered Vogel too lenient as a planner, and ordered Commandant Holcomb to replace Vogel. Subsequently, Vogel’s calculations were proven correct. Capturing New Georgia took more time, and needed more resources than the Army and Admiral Halsey had estimated. Vogel’s fear of flying had him doing inspection tours by ship, which caused delays. He lost time to train 1MAC for amphibious operations. His inability to manage 1MAC well required Holcomb to relieve him. In August 1943, he became Commanding General, Fleet Marine Force, San Diego, Camp Elliott. In May 1944, Vogel became Commanding General at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island, until his retirement in February 1946.
Gen. Charles D. Barrett served in WWI and WWII. He studied at Ecole de Guerre in Paris. In May 1911, he was at the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, to command the Marine Detachment aboard USS Indiana. During 1929-33, he taught at Marine Corps schools and co-wrote “The Tentative Manual for Landing Operations,” marking him as a pioneer in amphibious operations. He was Commander of 3rd Marine Brigade, and embarked for Samoa where his brigade morphed into a battle unit. In 1940, he was Director of Plans and Policies Division at HQMC. In November 1941-March 1942, he was Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. In September 1942, he was promoted to Maj. Gen. as Commander of the 3rd Marine Division, and embarked for Auckland in July 1943. By August 1943, his division was stationed on Guadalcanal, training intensively for the invasion of Bougainville. In September 1943, Barrett relinquished the 3rd Marine Division to Harry Schmidt because Commandant Holcomb decided that Barrett would replace Vandegrift as Commander of 1MAC. A fellow Marine said Barrett was very imaginative, ingenious, and forward-thinking. Holcomb lauded Barrett’s brilliance, sincerity, attentiveness, friendliness, work ethic, and tact. He would have been a good combat general for intricate knowledge of amphibious warfare, if not for his lack of an iron soul. Vandegrift handed 1MAC to Barrett but he continued to work on Bougainville until his death 3 weeks later. Records indicate cerebral hemorrhage as cause of death but there is evidence of suicide a day after he was fired as 1MAC Commanding General by Admiral Halsey. Camp Barrett in Quantico, Virginia is named after Gen. Charles Barrett.
CONCLUSION. In November 1941, there were 65,000 Marines. The Marine Corps engaged in perilous battle engagements. They consequently suffered relatively high casualties. By the Pacific War’s end in September 1945, there were over 23,000 Marines killed; and over 67,000 wounded. The Marines played a major role in WWII particularly against Japan. Marines were in the Philippines, Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Cape Gloucester, Tarawa, Roi-Namur, Eniwetok, Saipan, Tinian, Guam, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others. As Marines, they did not balk at their missions as they have a top-down “can-do” attitude. But the Marine Corps did not have it easy. They had to prove their worth to the military branches as a capable unit to undertake very risky amphibious warfare operations, which became the Marine Corps raison d’être. Weaponry, doctrine, tactics, skills, good combat commanders, all together gave the Marine Corps’ the ability to storm hostile beaches. Without good leadership, the Marines would not have attained an exceptional battle record in WWII Pacific.
RECOMMENDATION. Commanding the Pacific – Marine Corps Generals of WWII authored by Stephen R. Taaffe and published by USNI, highlights the manifested glory of the U.S. Marine Corps in WWII Pacific. However, the Marine Combat Generals who led the riskiest attack missions remain to this day relatively unknown. That must change. This book unequivocally presents each of these 16 Marine Generals’ characteristics, education, strengths, and weaknesses that either helped or obstructed their careers. The Marine Corps may have instilled the same sense of duty, ferocious commitment to the Corps, loyalty, and self-reliance, but their personalities were far from uniform. The Marine Corps’ greatest contributions to success in WWII were their amphibious operations that carried Allied Troops over every single beachhead in the Pacific war. Lt. Gen. John Lejeune said, “Leadership is the sum of the qualities of intellect, human understanding, and moral character that enables a person to inspire and control a group of people successfully.” This book is recommended reading for those who would like to join the Marine Corps, and learn combat leadership skills to be a successful fighter in battle. The ideal Marine Combat General must be in perfect health and mind, and excellent in logistical planning and executing orders, but with an iron soul. In my opinion, the Marine Corps was the perfect arm to match the ferociousness of the Japanese in WWII. Marines are truly a different breed. Semper Fi.
