INTRODUCTION. Everything these days appears daunting, even overwhelming. We have challenges internally and externally. The global pandemic has showed us in no unmistakable terms how fragile and vulnerable we are. The world we live in continues to be at risk not so much from the wrath of nature more than the greed of man. By all accounts, both internal and external environments impact each other in ways that are becoming more apparent with the passing of every year.

The challenges we face from this interface seem to get worse. The way of life that man has managed to devise for himself over the centuries has let loose a craving for satisfaction that knows no bounds. Once thought to be limitless and boundless, planet Earth today no longer seems formidable. Earth, like man, is now vulnerable and probably even dying and perishing at a much faster rate than earlier envisioned. It is not my intent to sound like a doomsayer. Still, either optimism or pessimism would not negate the fact that indeed we have more than enough to be concerned about when it comes to the future of our planet and us due to climate change and an increasingly altered biodiversity.

Are we then doing enough? In our part of the world, have our own efforts been worthy against these daunting challenges? What have our efforts been? Are we in tune with the rest of the world? After all, it is a global village we live in and the fate of the world is the fate of all. The Philippines, in particular, is a vast archipelago of 7,641 islands spanning a territory that makes it the 5^th largest island country in the world. Its maritime waters and tropical forests are host to a rich variety of all types of marine organisms and wildlife. According to Google, ‘the Philippines is one of the 17 mega biodiverse countries, containing two-thirds of the Earth’s biodiversity and 70% of the world’s plant and animal species due to its geographical isolation, diverse habitats, and high rates of endemism’ (https://www.usaid.gov, 17-Aug-2016). As a maritime nation, it is therefore interesting to know the Philippines’ own efforts toward protecting the world’s biodiversity not only in the face of climate change but also as a result of man’s behavior. Moreover, we can assess whether ongoing efforts by the Philippines are sufficient in containing any risks to much of the world’s biodiversity which it hosts.

This article will revisit the fundamentals of climate change and provide an update of the current situation. For better appreciation, it will move from a macro to micro zoom lens spanning the world culminating in our country of focus which is the Philippines. The discussions essentially include the critical issue of biodiversity which is heavily found in the Philippine environment. The great concentration of the world’s rich biodiversity and other essential resources in Philippine territory has naturally made the country also a security flashpoint in the region. The maritime issues in the Philippines therefore do not merely highlight the need to assess the country’s initiatives toward preserving the world’s wildlife and marine resources. They likewise point out concerns that have to do with man-made risks to the land and marine ecosystems therein including those that result from maritime incursions whether these are economic or security in nature. As well as any initiatives that have been adopted by the Philippines relative to the rest of the world in this regard. It will also be pointed out that if there is any significant stumbling block to the government’s drive to address climate change, better the environment, and improve lives, it would be corruption.

CLIMATE CHANGE. NASA defines climate change as ‘a broad range of global phenomena created predominantly by burning fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to the Earth’s atmosphere. These phenomena include the increased temperature trends described by global warming, but also encompass changes such as sea-level rise; ice mass losses in Greenland, Antarctica, the Arctic, and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flower/plant blooming patterns; and extreme weather events.’ Increasing evidence points to the “human economy and industries as the ultimate causes of global warming. This induced increase in temperature linked to industrial activities and the ‘greenhouse effect’ has brought about the global phenomenon of climate change” as we know it today (youmatter.world, 27-April-2020).

We should all be probably thankful for the enduring work of scientists worldwide who studied the phenomenon of climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), for one, ‘was created in 1988 with the purpose of studying the evolution of the phenomenon of climate change and its consequences. It continues to bring together hundreds of scientists, climatologists, geologists, oceanographers, and biologists, but also economists, sociologists, engineers, and other specialists in various fields.’ Working in three groups, the IPCC: (1) studies the process and magnitude of climate change as a phenomenon; (2) studies the vulnerability of ecosystems and societies as well as how the planet reacts and adapts to climate change; and (3) studies ways of fighting against climate change (youmatter.world, 27-April-2020).

Thanks to the work done by groups such as the IPCC, we now better understand what we are dealing with. An increase in temperature due to global warming has the potential to affect the planet’s entire ecosystem as we have seen happening in different countries manifested by extreme weather conditions like storms, floods, cyclones, and droughts. The increasing pattern of these disasters becoming more intensive, aggressive, and with more energy has consistently been observed. ‘At the same time, the regulating capacity of oceans is also being affected by an increase in temperatures. If global temperatures increase dramatically, ocean levels will not only increase – they will also be facing the ecological challenges of oceanic acidification and deoxygenation. At the same time, forest areas (e.g., Amazon rainforest), fragile ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs), and biodiversity (e.g., corals, insects, and mammals) are also under threat’ (youmatter.world, 27-April-2020).

Climate change has its consequences on society and on the economy. ‘With the increase in temperatures in some countries, especially in Equatorial regions (like Asia), the flow of climate refugees is changing and increasing, putting pressure on other countries to host them, help them survive, and overcome political barriers. The reasons for this move have to do with natural resources, such as drinking water, that are getting more limited and many crops and livestock that are unlikely to survive (affecting locals but also the global economy of the several industries that rely on raw materials) in specific locations because of the temperature being too hot or too dry, too cold or too wet’ (youmatter.world, 27-April-2020). Business continuity management programs have suddenly become relevant as businesses worldwide have to contend with an increasing array of natural disasters impacting manufacturing and distribution infrastructures and supply chains. The global pandemic only worsens the general concerns from climate change as it has set the stage whereby all the accumulated gains against the phenomenon have suddenly been interrupted by an equally deadly or even deadlier threat.

What has been the global consensus on fighting against climate change? ‘To fight against climate change, we must first reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. To accomplish this, the first step is to embrace renewable energies that are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, geothermal heat, certain crops, and avoid creating energy by the burning of fossil fuels. We must also make everything more efficient, because even if the energy comes from a renewable source, it still will not be carbon neutral and will therefore contribute to the ozone depletion.’ Subsequent lifestyle change will have to be adopted by humanity. The urgency of the matter calls for radical change. But if this is not possible, then gradual change will do. ‘For this to happen, the world needs to create a global culture of sustainable development, where the energy is used wisely and efficiently, where a circular economy is preferred (much like indigenous peoples do), as well as durable and eco-friendly products like it was in earlier times. The global economy must transform into one that is sustainable and longer term’ (youmatter.world, 27-April-2020).

BIODIVERSITY. Biodiversity, as defined by National Geographic (www.nationalgeographic.org, 23-Aug-2019), ‘refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich that many species have yet to be discovered, many species are being threatened with extinction due to human activities, putting the Earth’s magnificent biodiversity at risk.’ As explained by YourArticleLibrary (https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com), some of the main threats to biodiversity are: 1. Human Activities and Loss of Habitat, 2. Deforestation, 3. Desertification, 4. Marine Environment, 5. Increasing Wildlife Trade, and 6. Climate Change.

1. Human Activities and Loss of Habitat: ‘Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and plants globally estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the absence of human activities. Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and coral reefs. Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land-uses, while coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels of over exploitation and pollution.’ Another threat that has come to the fore more recently is the destruction of coral reefs from the construction of artificial dwellings to reclaim submerged islets from the sea. In the South China Sea for instance, the People’s Republic of China has been into these constructions for some time now as it annexes much of the South China Sea owing to its historical Nine-Dash Line claim. China, among several countries with either territorial or exclusive maritime claims in the South China Sea, has exacerbated tensions in the region due to its actions. Since early this year (2021), almost 300 Chinese militia vessels have moored near the Julian Felipe Reef within the Philippines’ exclusive economic zone. The vessels are believed to be harvesting fish resources from the area and conducting scientific research and monitoring. China has managed to: 1. Occupy and exploit; 2. Militarize and reclaim; 3. Secure and solidify its presence; and 4. Develop and utilize resources from its claimed possessions in the South China Sea against the interests of other claimant nations like the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and Taiwan. Since 2018, China has managed to put up research stations at Panganiban (Meiji) Reef, Yongshu station at Kagitingan Reef, and Zhubi station at Subi Reef. The Philippines had filed a complaint against China for its intrusions before the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague and won an Arbitral Award in 2016. Nevertheless, China has ignored the ruling claiming that it has no bearing.
2. Deforestation: “Forest ecosystems contain as much as 80% of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity and provide wood fiber and biomass energy as well as critical components of the global cycles of water, energy, and nutrient. Forest ecosystems are being cleared and degraded in many parts of the world.’ Apart from legitimate business activity, the world’s forest cover has also been dwindling from the abuses of illegal logging activities. Whether it is the Amazon jungle in South America or mountain forests in the Philippines, threats to biodiversity continue due to unchecked or tolerated criminal activity. ‘The degradation of forests represents an enormous potential source of green house gas emissions. Forest ecosystems contain three times the amount of carbon currently present in the atmosphere and about one-third of this carbon is stored above ground in trees and other vegetation and two-thirds is stored in the soil. According to current estimates, tropical deforestation and burning account for about one quarter of carbon emissions into the atmosphere from human activities.’
3. Desertification: ‘Desertification and deforestation are the main causes of biodiversity loss. Both processes are decisively influenced by the extension of agriculture. The direct cost of deforestation is reflected in the loss of valuable plants and animal species. Desertification process is the result of poor land management which can be aggravated by climatic variations. Converting wild lands to agriculture often involves ploughing the soils which leads to decline in soil organic matter over time.’ But the loss of valuable biodiversity from both deforestation and desertification is perhaps best illustrated by the human need for shelter and commercial gain most especially in recent times as the world’s population continues to grow. No places on Earth better illustrate this phenomenon than our ever-expanding cities found in every country of the world. It is such a paradox that the very source of man’s existence such as his habitat’s biodiversity is likewise its casualty through man’s efforts to survive.
4. Marine Environment: ‘Oceans play a vital role in the global environment. Covering 70% of the Earth’s surface, they influence global climate, food production, and economic activities. Despite these roles, coastal and marine environments are being rapidly degraded in many parts of the globe. In coastal areas where human activities are concentrated, pollution, over-exploitation of resources, development of critical habitats such as wetlands, and mangroves, and water-flow from poor land-use practices have led to drastic reductions in near shore fisheries production and aquatic biodiversity.’ In addition, the increasing practice of land reclamation has disturbed natural ecosystems in favor of economic gain. Not that livelihoods and business practices should be discouraged around these areas but that human activities should be regulated so that they do more lasting good than harm towards sustaining the marine environment.
5. Increasing Wildlife Trade: According to Nick Barnes, ‘trade is another cause of biodiversity depletion that gives rise to conflict between North and South.’ ‘Global trade in wildlife is estimated at over USD20 billion annually. Global trade includes at least 40,000 primates, ivory from at least 90,000 African elephants, 1 million orchids, 4 million live birds, 10 million reptile skins, 15 million furs, and over 350 million tropical fish.’ Add to these figures the amount of marine wildlife, corals, and habitat mineral resources that are illegitimately lost to illegal incursions by some countries into other than their exclusive economic zones and the statistics are therefore much even higher. In the Philippines for instance which is 82% water, it is estimated that the archipelagic nation loses some PhP33 billion worth of fish annually to China’s illegal fishing activities within the Philippines’ exclusive economic zone.
6. Climate Change: ‘As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in both hemispheres. The increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air affects the physiological functioning of plant and species composition. Moreover, aquatic ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and coastal wetlands, are vulnerable to changes in climate. In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically diverse marine systems, are potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean temperature. Human-induced climate change has increasingly become a major factor in reducing biological diversity. These pressures on biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by economic development and related demands including the increasing demand for biological resources. Activities that reduce biodiversity, jeopardize economic development, and human health through losses of useful materials, genetic stocks, and the services of intact ecosystems. Material losses include food, wood, and medicines, as well as resources important for recreation and tourism. Losing genetic diversity, like losing species diversity, makes it even more likely that further environmental disturbance will result in serious reductions in goods and services that ecosystems can provide. Decreased biodiversity also interferes with essential ecological services such as pollination, maintenance of soil fertility, flood controls, water purification, assimilation of wastes, and the cycling of carbon and other nutrients.’

PHILIPPINE INITIATIVES VIS-A-VIS THE REST OF THE WORLD.  What have been the Philippines’ initiatives with the rest of the world toward containing climate change and biodiversity loss?

First, as reported by Climate Change Commissioner Mary Ann Lucille Sering, the Philippine government ‘has put in place policies, programs, and institutions for dealing with climate change.’ She added that these government initiatives ‘try to make our communities safer and the people less vulnerable to sea level rise and extreme weather events like strong typhoons, floods, and storm surges, among other impacts’ (www.worldbank.org). Among the institutions she refers to is the Climate Change Act, passed in 2009, creating the CCC ‘to develop policies and coordinate government programs on climate change.’ According to then Budget Secretary Florencio Abad, ‘appropriations for climate change have been increasing at an average of 26% yearly since 2009’ (www.worldbank.org).

Second, the Philippines works with the World Bank towards ‘implementing the country’s climate change programs with increased financing, improved design, and greater focus and coordination.’ World Bank Country Director Motoo Konishi added that ‘promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency, for instance, boosts energy security and lower energy costs, thus improving the country’s competitiveness. In agriculture, adaptation activities like conserving water and improving water quality enhances food security. Labor-intensive activities like developing climate-resilient farming and retrofitting infrastructure for flood control build resilience while increasing job opportunities, especially for the poor’ (www.worldbank.org).

Third, reeling from Germanwatch’s Global Climate Risk Index ranking the Philippines 4^th out of 180 countries most affected by extreme weather, the Philippine government stepped up its mitigation efforts against climate change. The Philippines therefore ratified the 2017 Paris Agreement on Climate Change in March that year and urged all parties attending the United Nations General Assembly in 2020 ‘to make good and honor their commitment to fight climate change and strengthen communities and peoples for preparedness and resilience.’ The Philippine government ‘also formulated a Cabinet Cluster on Climate Change Adaptation, Mitigation, and Disaster Risk Reduction Roadmap for 2018 to 2022 to mainstream climate change and disaster risk reduction to identified climate vulnerable provinces and major cities’ (gmanetwork.com, 27-Jan-2021).

Fourth, the Philippines has been actively collaborating with international initiatives to mitigate climate change since the first Aquino administration. For instance, the country created the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC) in 1991 chaired by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Secretary. It signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and ratified it in 1994. The Philippines also signed the Kyoto Protocol along with 153 other nations in 1998. The UNFCCC ‘established an international treaty to combat dangerous human interference with the climate system in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.’ The Kyoto Protocol extended the 1992 UNFCCC (www.env.go.jp).

Fifth, the Philippines has likewise adopted focused measures to protect its rich biodiversity from the harmful effects of environmental degradation and climate change. For one, it has dedicated a bureau under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to accomplish just that. The Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) of DENR exists to ‘protect the Philippines’ biological diversity, and properly manage and conserve these important resources and the ecosystem services they provide’ (DENR-BMB Facebook Page). A latest initiative of the DENR has been to partner with the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to help fund the country’s Biodiversity Corridor (BC) project which requires an investment of USD74.961 million as reported by Manila Bulletin in July 2021. US-based GEF is a partnership of UN and other agencies, multilateral development banks, and international NGOs. It works with 183 countries including the Philippines. Central Mindoro and Eastern Mindanao are the pilot project areas of the BC project. According to the DENR, ‘the project will benefit the environment with a carbon sequestration of 44.3 million metric tons over 20 years, and at least 65,000 individuals 30% of which are indigenous peoples in terms of sustainable natural resource management and livelihood improvement’ (https://mb.com.ph, 7-July-2021).

Sixth, the DENR in May 2021 partnered with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) ‘to implement PhP1.97 billion worth of projects aimed to protect biodiversity and improve access to water.’ Reported by BusinessWorld, the department signed memorandums of understanding ‘to embark on the PhP1.1 billion Sustainable Interventions for Biodiversity, Oceans and Landscapes (SIBOL) project and the PhP870 million Safe Water initiative.’ The projects will run for five years (https://www.bworldonline.com, 30-May-2021).

Seventh, another initiative of the DENR in collaboration with USAID and Conservation International to protect biodiversity is The Protect Wildlife Project launched in 2016 ‘to combat the threats to wildlife and the causes of biodiversity loss in the Philippines while taking into consideration environmental threats such as habitat loss, unsustainable harvesting, and illegal poaching’ (https://www.conservation.org). There are many other Philippine collaborations with the international community toward preserving local biodiversity. Almost the entire archipelago is represented when it comes to such initiatives as the ones protecting wildlife, forest, marine, and other ecosystems in Negros, Panay, Sarangani, Davao Oriental, Sulu, Sierra Madre, Bohol, Mindoro Strait, Zamboanga Peninsula, Palawan, South Cotabato, Batanes, Siargao, and Cebu (www.denr.gov.ph).

Eighth, I just attended a webinar on EU-ASEAN Strategic Partnership Dialogue in early August 2021 and the agenda was on every conceivable area of cooperation from security to the environment between the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Expressing the Philippines’ strong support to international rule of law and cooperation with the EU was Foreign Affairs Undersecretary Maria Theresa Lazaro. Meanwhile, EU Ambassador to the Philippines Igor Driesmans reiterated the EU’s commitment to the significant breakthrough in the strategic partnership arrived at only a year ago (2020) between the EU and ASEAN. The areas of cooperative arrangement ‘include economic cooperation on such issues as the response to COVID-19, climate change and green growth, sustainable development and connectivity, maritime cooperation, and cybersecurity.’ Last but not least, Singapore’s Permanent Representative to the ASEAN Kok Li Peng echoed ASEAN’s strong commitment to the new strategic partnership with the EU.

Along this area, it therefore comes as no surprise that the UK, along with other western allies in tow, has recently adopted previously unseen initiatives like sending a naval armada for drills through the South China Sea to help ensure freedom of navigation now being contested by China with its historical Nine-Dash-Line claim. It happened in mid-2021 when the UK tested its Carrier Strike Group led by its new aircraft carrier HMS Queen Elizabeth through a maritime journey that sailed from the Suez Canal through the Indian Ocean on to the South China Sea via the Strait of Malacca. The UK warship was escorted by 2 destroyers, 2 anti-submarine frigates, a submarine, 2 auxiliary supply ships, a US Navy guided missile destroyer, a Netherlands frigate (for air defense), air power (RAF F-35 B stealth fighters and US Marine Corps F-35 B’s) from the deck of the 65,000-ton aircraft carrier. (Patalano, Alessio: 11-August-2021).

Finally, if there are any stumbling blocks to the government’s drive to address climate change, better the environment, and improve lives, that would be corruption. The late former DENR Secretary Gina Lopez battled it during her term. In a Rappler (www.rappler.com, 7-Feb-2017) talk she gave in early 2017, she reported that only 12 mining firms passed the DENR audit and that the DENR had to order the closure of 23 firms and the suspension of 5 others. She lamented the corrupting impact of mining money and big business fund contributions to political campaigns. That despite rules and regulations, mining operations illegally ‘kill water, adversely affect life, and keep our people poor.’ In July 2020, Tara Yap of the Manila Bulletin quoted DENR-6 Regional Director Jim Sampulna admitting that ‘corruption exists in the processes and procedures in the department such as in requests and issuances of permits, application for land titling, request for public land survey and other services offered to the public.’ For instance, there was an issue of fake land title issuance in 2015 involving a popular beach destination on Sicogon Island in Carles town, Iloilo province (https://mb.com.ph, 13-July-2020).

The issue of corruption goes way back and continues to the present day. As far back as 2010, the then DENR Secretary Ramon Paje made curbing illegal logging and corruption his department’s priority, launching ‘OPLAN Kalasangan.’ At one point, the initiative yielded the ‘confiscation of 14,760 pieces of illegally-sourced timber with a volume of 2,924,694.98 board feet’ from the ‘timber-rich regions of Cagayan Valley and Eastern Mindanao’ (www.officialgazette.gov.ph, 29-Dec-2010). In July 2017, DENR Secretary Roy Cimatu even signed a memorandum of agreement with the Volunteers Against Crime and Corruption (VACC) to help with the department’s campaign drive against corruption which continues to threaten the DENR’s mission of protecting the environment, fighting against climate change, and safeguarding the world’s biodiversity found in the Philippines (https://businessmirror.com.ph, 31-July-2017). President Rodrigo Duterte himself admitted in February and again in May 2021 that ‘there is still corruption in this government and any other government that will come after me.’ He further added that ‘eradicating corruption is impossible and unachievable within his remaining months in office.’ It is not a very comforting message coming from the highest Philippine official. As if to soften the impact of his dismal confession, Duterte then announced the dismissal of four DENR employees on corruption charges (https://mb.com.ph, 14-May-2021).

CONCLUSION. This discourse re-visited the basic issues on climate change. It attempted to provide an update of the current situation obtaining in the Philippines and the rest of the world. For better appreciation, its narrative moved from a view of the larger picture to the narrower scope with a focus on the Philippines. The discussions covered the essential issues on biodiversity especially as they affect the vast ecosystems found in the Philippines. The significant concentration of the world’s rich biodiversity and other essential resources in Philippine territory has naturally made the country also a security flashpoint. The maritime issues in the Philippines therefore do not only highlight the need to assess the country’s initiatives toward preserving the world’s marine ecosystems. They likewise point out concerns that have to do with man-made risks to biodiversity including those that result from maritime incursions, whether these are economic or security in nature. Also discussed were other initiatives adopted by the Philippines in cooperation with the international community. Finally, it was pointed out that if there is any significant stumbling block to the government’s drive to address climate change, better the environment, and improve the people’s lives, it is corruption.

About the Author:

A public servant and patriot, retired Colonel Dencio Acop graduated from West Point in 1983. After serving in the Philippine Constabulary and Philippine Army, he worked in the corporate sector and now writes freelance. His blogspot, Dencio’s Pen, contains a collection of his published works.